![]() ![]() One dimension is core affect, a neurophysiological state experienced as feeling good (pleasure) or feeling bad (displeasure). They propose an alternative model comprising two major dimensions. Russell and Barrett in a series of articles go a step further and seemingly question the very validity and utility of the basic emotions concept ( Barrett, 2006 Russell, 2003 Russell & Barrett, 1999). More recently, Nesse and Ellsworth concluded that “the clear taxonomy of emotions sought for so long by so many may not exist” ( Nesse & Ellsworth, 2009, p. More than 20 years ago, after a careful review of the topic, Ortony and Turner asked whether a satisfactory criterion of “basic-ness” was possible ( Ortony & Turner, 1990). While there is little doubt that what we call fear, anger, and sadness refer to real (i.e., observable) phenomena and important parts of human experience, the weight of scientific opinion appears to be shifting away from the view that a few specific emotions are natural and universal kinds, laid down in the biology of humans and other animals (nature), in favor of a larger place for experience (nurture) in all emotions ( Averill, 2009 Ekman, 1999).ĭoubts about the reality of basic emotions are not new. Nevertheless, the central and still unresolved question is: Are basic emotions an inherent part of the makeup of humans and other animals? Are they biologically given, like vision and blood pressure, ready to be discovered? Or are they human creations like bracelets and use of fire? ( Barrett, 2006). The pursuit of basic emotions has produced much important and useful new information. Other theories, such as the various forms of constructivism, place more emphasis on the importance of social origins, such as cultural expectations or beliefs, in shaping emotional expression ( Averill, 2009) Plutchik hypothesized that basic emotions were combined to produce mixed emotions, personality traits, and psychopathology. The theory postulates eight basic emotion dimensions, arranged in four pairs: joy versus sorrow, anger versus fear, acceptance versus disgust, and surprise versus expectancy. The major features of this perspective are evident in Plutchik’s psychoevolutionary theory of emotion ( Plutchik, 2001). They are typically believed to provide the biological foundations for all emotions, to be genetically determined, and to have acquired their adaptive functions in response to recurrent challenges to the individual and the species over generations of evolutionary history ( Tooby & Cosmides, 1990). In keeping with Darwin’s original view, basic emotions are assumed to be subjective states (feelings) expressed in species-typical behaviors. Although opinions vary as to their precise kind and number, the lists are usually short and use terms from the common language, typically including fear, anger, sadness, happiness, and love ( Nesse, 1990 Ortony & Turner, 1990). The identity of Darwin’s chief emotions, the basic emotions, as we refer to them here, has been the subject of considerable discussion and debate. He also believed the “chief” expressive actions were inherited or innate, although he did not name these emotions explicitly. He believed that there were distinctly different kinds of emotional expression, that they evolved gradually, served a useful purpose, were the result of actions of the nervous system, and were the external manifestations of various states of mind. A landmark event in this development was the publication in 1872 of Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.ĭarwin had already published On the Origin of Species ( Darwin, 1859/2008) and The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex ( Darwin, 1871) and was ready to extend his revolutionary concepts of natural selection and evolution to expressive behavior in humans and animals. By the 19th century, however, the emotions were beginning to be studied scientifically. For hundreds of years making sense of such phenomena was chiefly the concern of philosophers. Any mammal actively engaged with its environment will show signs of emotional arousal. Emotions are a common component of behavior.
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